最新网址:www.llskw.org
An entire
lifetime?
Sadly, all this knowledge would not help the reader to forecast what is
to happen tomorrow. Actually, it might decrease his ability to forecast.
There is another aspect to the problem of prediction: its inherent limitations,
those that have little to do with human nature, but instead arise
from the very nature of information itself. I have said that the Black Swan
has three attributes: unpredictability, consequences, and retrospective explainability.
Let us examine this unpredictability business.*
* I owe the reader an answer concerning Catherine's lover count. She had only
twelve.
Chapter Eleven
HOW TO LOOK FOR BIRD POOP
Popper's prediction about the predictors—Poincaré plays with billiard balls—
Von Hayek is allowed to be irreverent—Anticipation machines—Paul Samuelson
wants you to be rational—Beware the philosopher—Demand some
certainties.
We've seen that a) we tend to both tunnel and think "narrowly" (epistemic
arrogance), and b) our prediction record is highly overestimated—
many people who think they can predict actually can't.
We will now go deeper into the unadvertised structural limitations on
our ability to predict. These limitations may arise not from us but from the
nature of the activity itself—too complicated, not just for us, but for any
tools we haye or can conceivably obtain. Some Black Swans will remain
elusive, enough to kill our forecasts.
HOW TO LOOK FOR BIRD POOP
In the summer of 1998 I worked at a European-owned financial institution.
It wanted to distinguish itself by being rigorous and farsighted. The
unit involved in trading had five managers, all serious-looking (always in
dark blue suits, even on dress-down Fridays), who had to meet throughout
the summer in order "to formulate the five-year plan." This was sup1
6 6 WE J U S T C A N ' T PREDICT
posed to be a meaty document, a sort of user's manual for the firm. A fiveyear
plan? To a fellow deeply skeptical of the central planner, the notion
was ludicrous; growth within the firm had been organic and unpredictable,
bottom-up not top-down. It was well known that the firm's most
lucrative department was the product of a chance call from a customer
asking for a specific but strange financial transaction. The firm accidentally
realized that they could build a unit just to handle these transactions,
since they were profitable, and it rapidly grew to dominate their activities.
The managers flew across the world in order to meet: Barcelona, Hong
Kong, et cetera. A lot of miles for a lot of verbiage. Needless to say they
were usually sleep-deprived. Being an executive does not require very developed
frontal lobes, but rather a combination of charisma, a capacity to
sustain boredom, and the ability to shallowly perform on harrying schedules.
Add to these tasks the "duty" of attending opera performances.
The managers sat down to brainstorm during these meetings, about, of
course, the medium-term future—they wanted to have "vision." But then
an event occurred that was not in the previous five-year plan: the Black
Swan of the Russian financial default of 1998 and the accompanying meltdown
of the values of Latin American debt markets. It had such an effect
on the firm that, although the institution had a sticky employment policy
of retaining managers, none of the five was still employed there a month
after the sketch of the 1998 five-year plan.
Yet I am confident that today their replacements are still meeting to
work on the next "five-year plan." We never learn.
Inadvertent Discoveries
The discovery of human epistemic arrogance, as we saw in the previous
chapter, was allegedly inadvertent. But so were many other discoveries as
well. Many more than we think.
The classical model of discovery is as follows: you search for what you
know (say, a new way to reach India) and find something you didn't know
was there (America).
If you think that the inventions we see around us came from someone
sitting in a cubicle and concocting them according to a timetable, think
again: almost everything of the moment is the product of serendipity. The
term serendipity was coined in a letter by the writer Hugh Walpole, who
derived it from a fairy tale, "The Three Princes of Serendip." These
HOW TO LOOK FOR B I R D POOP 1 67
princes "were always making discoveries by accident or sagacity, of things
which they were not in quest of."
In other words, you find something you are not looking for and it
changes the world, while wondering after its discovery why it "took so
long" to arrive at something so obvious. No journalist was present when
the wheel was invented, but I am ready to bet that people did not just embark
on the project of inventing the wheel (that main engine of growth)
and then complete it according to a timetable. Likewise with most inventions.
Sir Francis Bacon commented that the most important advances are
the least predictable ones, those "lying out of the path of the imagination."
Bacon was not the last intellectual to point this out. The idea keeps
popping up, yet then rapidly dying out. Almost half a century ago, the
bestselling novelist Arthur Koestler wrote an entire book about it, aptly
called The Sleepwalkers. It describes discoverers as sleepwalkers stumbling
upon results and not realizing what they have in their hands. We
think that the import of Copernicus's discoveries concerning planetary
motions was obvious to him and to others in his day; he had been dead
seventy-five years before the authorities started getting offended. Likewise
we think that Galileo was a victim in the name of science; in fact, the
church didn't take him too seriously. It seems, rather, that Galileo caused
the uproar himself by ruffling a few feathers. At the end of the year in
which Darwin and Wallace presented their papers on evolution by natural
selection that changed the way we view the world, the president of the
Linnean society, where the papers were presented, announced that the society
saw "no striking discovery," nothing in particular that could revolutionize
science.
We forget about unpredictability when it is our turn to predict. This is
why people can read this chapter and similar accounts, agree entirely with
them, yet fail to heed their arguments when thinking about the future.
Take this dramatic example of a serendipitous discovery. Alexander
Fleming was cleaning up his laboratory when he found that pénicillium
mold had contaminated one of his old experiments. He thus happened
upon the antibacterial properties of penicillin, the reason many of us are
alive today (including, as I said in Chapter 8, myself, for typhoid fever is
often fatal when untreated). True, Fleming was looking for "something,"
but the actual discovery was simply serendipitous. Furthermore, while in
hindsight the discovery appears momentous, it took a very long time for
1 6 8 WE J U S T C A N ' T P R E D I CT
health officiais to realize the importance of what they had on their hands.
Even Fleming lost faith in the idea before it was subsequently revived.
In 1965 two radio astronomists at Bell Labs in New Jersey who were
mounting a large antenna were bothered by a background noise, a hiss,
like the static that you hear when you have bad reception. The noise could
not be eradicated—even after they cleaned the bird excrement out of the
dish, since they were convinced that bird poop was behind the noise. It
took a while for them to figure out that what they were hearing was the
trace of the birth of the universe, the cosmic background microwave radiation.
This discovery revived the big bang theory, a languishing idea that
was posited by earlier researchers. I found the following comments on Bell
Labs' website commenting on how this "discovery" was one of the century's
greatest advances:
Dan Stanzione, then Bell Labs president and Lucent's chief operating
officer when Penzias [one of the radio astronomers involved in the discovery]
retired, said Penzias "embodies the creativity and technical
excellence that are the hallmarks of Bell Labs." He called him a Renaissance
figure who "extended our fragile understanding of creation,
and advanced the frontiers of science in many important areas."
Renaissance shmenaissance. The two fellows were looking for bird
poop!
请记住本书首发域名:www.llskw.org。来奇网电子书手机版阅读网址:m.llskw.org