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Newspapers report on the criminals who get caught.
There is no section in The New York Times recording the stories of those
who committed crimes but have not been caught. So it is with cases of
tax evasion, government bribes, prostitution rings, poisoning of wealthy
spouses (with substances that do not have a name and cannot be detected),
and drug trafficking.
In addition, our representation of the standard criminal might be
based on the properties of those less intelligent ones who were caught.
Once we seep ourselves into the notion of silent evidence, so many
things around us that were previously hidden start manifesting themselves.
Having spent a couple of decades in this mind-set, I am convinced
(but cannot prove) that training and education can help us avoid its pitfalls.
The Evolution of the Swimmer's Body
What do the popular expressions "a swimmer's body" and "beginner's
luck" have in common? What do they seem to share with the concept of
history?
There is a belief among gamblers that beginners are almost always
lucky. "It gets worse later, but gamblers are always lucky when they start
out," you hear. This statement is actually empirically true: researchers
confirm that gamblers have lucky beginnings (the same applies to stock
market speculators). Does this mean that each one of us should become a
gambler for a while, take advantage of lady luck's friendliness to beginners,
then stop?
The answer is no. The same optical illusion prevails: those who start
gambling will be either lucky or unlucky (given that the casino has the advantage,
a slightly greater number will be unlucky). The lucky ones, with
the feeling of having been selected by destiny, will continue gambling; the
others, discouraged, will stop and will not show up in the sample. They
will probably take up, depending on their temperaments, bird-watching,
Scrabble, piracy, or other pastimes. Those who continue gambling will remember
having been lucky as beginners. The dropouts, by definition, will
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no longer be part of the surviving gamblers' community. This explains beginner's
luck.
There is an analogy with what is called in common parlance a "swimmer's
body," which led to a mistake I shamefully made a few years ago (in
spite of my specialty in this bias, I did not notice that I was being fooled).
When asking around about the comparative physical elegance of athletes,
I was often told that runners looked anorexic, cyclists bottom-heavy, and
weight lifters insecure and a little primitive. I inferred that I should spend
some time inhaling chlorine, in the New York University pool to get those
"elongated muscles." Now suspend the causality. Assume that a person's
genetic variance allows for a certain type of body shape. Those born with
a natural tendency to develop a swimmer's body become better swimmers.
These are the ones you see in your sample splashing up and down at the
pools. But they would have looked pretty much the same if they lifted
weights. It is a fact that a given muscle grows exactly the same way
whether you take steroids or climb walls at the local gym.
WHAT YOU SEE AND WHAT YOU DON'T SEE
Katrina, the devastating hurricane that hit New Orleans in 2005, got
plenty of politicizing politicians on television. These legislators, moved by
the images of devastation and the pictures of angry victims made homeless,
made promises of "rebuilding." It was so noble on their part to do
something humanitarian, to rise above our abject selfishness.
Did they promise to do so with their own money?
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