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However, if you believe in free will you can't truly believe in social science
and economic projection. You cannot predict how people will act.
Except, of course, if there is a trick, and that trick is the cord on which
neoclassical economics is suspended. You simply assume that individuals
will be rational in the future and thus act predictably. There is a strong
link between rationality, predictability, and mathematical tractability. A
rational individual will perform a unique set of actions in specified circumstances.
There is one and only one answer to the question of how "rational"
people satisfying their best interests would act. Rational actors must
be coherent: they cannot prefer apples to oranges, oranges to pears, then
pears to apples. If they did, then it would be difficult to generalize their behavior.
It would also be difficult to project their behavior in time.
In orthodox economics, rationality became a straitjacket. Platonified
economists ignored the fact that people might prefer to do something
other than maximize their economic interests. This led to mathematical
techniques such as "maximization," or "optimization," on which Paul
Samuelson built much of his work. Optimization consists in finding the
mathematically optimal policy that an economic agent could pursue. For
instance, what is the "optimal" quantity you should allocate to stocks? It
involves complicated mathematics and thus raises a barrier to entry by nonmathematically
trained scholars. I would not be the first to say that this
optimization set back social science by reducing it from the intellectual
and reflective discipline that it was becoming to an attempt at an "exact
science." By "exact science," I mean a second-rate engineering problem
for those who want to pretend that they are in the physics department—
so-called physics envy. In other words, an intellectual fraud.
Optimization is a case of sterile modeling that we will discuss further
in Chapter 17. It had no practical (or even theoretical) use, and so it became
principally a competition for academic positions, a way to make
people compete with mathematical muscle. It kept Platonified economists
out of the bars, solving equations at night. The tragedy is that Paul
Samuelson, a quick mind, is said to be one of the most intelligent scholars
of his generation. This was clearly a case of very badly invested intelligence.
Characteristically, Samuelson intimidated those who questioned his
techniques with the statement "Those who can, do science, others do
methodology." If you knew math, you could "do science." This is reminisHOW
TO LOOK FOR B I R D POOP 1 85
cent of psychoanalysts who silence their critics by accusing them of having
trouble with their fathers. Alas, it turns out that it was Samuelson and
most of his followers who did not know much math, or did not know how
to use what math they knew, how to apply it to reality. They only knew
enough math to be blinded by it.
Tragically, before the proliferation of empirically blind idiot savants,
interesting work had been begun by true thinkers, the likes of J . M.
Keynes, Friedrich Hayek, and the great Beno?t Mandelbrot, all of whom
were displaced because they moved economics away from the precision of
second-rate physics. Very sad. One great underestimated thinker is G.L.S.
Shackle, now almost completely obscure, who introduced the notion of
"unknowledge," that is, the unread books in Umberto Eco's library. It is
unusual to see Shackle's work mentioned at all, and I had to buy his books
from secondhand dealers in London.
Legions of empirical psychologists of the heuristics and biases school
have shown that the model of rational behavior under uncertainty is not
just grossly inaccurate but plain wrong as a description of reality. Their results
also bother Platonified economists because they reveal that there are
several ways to be irrational. Tolstoy said that happy families were all
alike,, while each unhappy one is unhappy in its own way. People have been
shown to make errors equivalent to preferring apples to oranges, oranges
to pears, and pears to apples, depending on how the relevant questions are
presented to them. The sequence matters!
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