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Psychologists have studied this kind of misprediction with respect to
both pleasant and unpleasant events. We overestimate the effects of both
kinds of future events on our lives. We seem to be in a psychological
predicament that makes us do so. This predicament is called "anticipated
utility" by Danny Kahneman and "affective forecasting" by Dan Gilbert.
The point is not so much that we tend to mispredict our future happiness,
but rather that we do not learn recursively from past experiences. We have
evidence of a mental block and distortions in the way we fail to learn from
our past errors in projecting the future of our affective states.
We grossly overestimate the length of the effect of misfortune on our
lives. You think that the loss of your fortune or current position will be
devastating, but you are probably wrong. More likely, you will adapt to
anything, as you probably did after past misfortunes. You may feel a sting,
but it will not be as bad as you expect. This kind of misprediction may
have a purpose: to motivate us to perform important acts (like buying new
cars or getting rich) and to prevent us from taking certain unnecessary
risks. And it is part of a more general problem: we humans are supposed
to fool ourselves a little bit here and there. According to Trivers's theory
of self-deception, this is supposed to orient us favorably toward the future.
But self-deception is not a desirable feature outside of its natural domain.
It prevents us from taking some unnecessary risks—but we saw in Chapter
6 how it does not as readily cover a spate of modern risks that we do
not fear because they are not vivid, such as investment risks, environmental
dangers, or long-term security.
Helenus and the Reverse Prophecies
If you are in the business of being a seer, describing the future to other lessprivileged
mortals, you are judged on the merits of your predictions.
Helenus, in The Iliad, was a different kind of seer. The son of Priam
and Hecuba, he was the cleverest man in the Trojan army. It was he who,
under torture, told the Achaeans how they would capture Troy (apparently
he didn't predict that he himself would be captured). But this is not
what distinguished him. Helenus, unlike other seers, was able to predict
1 9 6 WE J U S T C A N ' T P R E D I CT
the past with great precision—without having been given any details of it.
He predicted backward.
Our problem is not just that we do not know the future, we do not
know much of the past either. We badly need someone like Helenus if we
are to know history. Let us see how.
The Melting Ice Cube
Consider the following thought experiment borrowed from my friends
Aaron Brown and Paul Wilmott:
Operation 1 (the melting ice cube): Imagine an ice cube and consider
how it may melt over the next two hours while you play a few rounds of
poker with your friends. Try to envision the shape of the resulting puddle.
Operation 2 (where did the water come from?): Consider a puddle of
water on the floor. Now try to reconstruct in your mind's eye the shape of
the ice cube it may once have been. Note that the puddle may not have
necessarily originated from an ice cube.
The second operation is harder. Helenus indeed had to have skills.
The difference between these two processes resides in the following. If
you have the right models (and some time on your hands, and nothing better
to do) you can predict with great precision how the ice cube will melt—
this is a specific engineering problem devoid of complexity, easier than the
one involving billiard balls. However, from the pool of water you can
build infinite possible ice cubes, if there was in fact an ice cube there at all.
The first direction, from the ice cube to the puddle, is called the forward
process. The second direction, the backward process, is much, much more
complicated. The forward process is generally used in physics and engineering;
the backward process in nonrepeatable, nonexperimental historical
approaches.
In a way, the limitations that prevent us from unfrying an egg also
prevent us from reverse engineering history.
Now, let me increase the complexity of the forward-backward problem
just a bit by assuming nonlinearity. Take what is generally called the
"butterfly in India" paradigm from the discussion of Lorenz's discovery in
the previous chapter. As we have seen, a small input in a complex system
can lead to nonrandom large results, depending on very special conditions.
A single butterfly flapping its wings in New Delhi may be the certain
cause of a hurricane in North Carolina, though the hurricane may take
EPISTEMOCRACY, A DREAM 1 97
place a couple of years later. However, given the observation of a hurricane
in North Carolina, it is dubious that you could figure out the causes
with any precision: there are billions of billions of such small things as
wing-flapping butterflies in Timbuktu or sneezing wild dogs in Australia
that could have caused it. The process from the butterfly to the hurricane
is greatly simpler than the reverse process from the hurricane to the potential
butterfly.
Confusion between the two is disastrously widespread in common culture.
This "butterfly in India" metaphor has fooled at least one filmmaker.
For instance, Happenstance (a.k.a. The Beating of a Butterfly's Wings), a
French-language film by one Laurent Firode, meant to encourage people
to focus on small things that can change the course of their lives. Hey,
since a small event (a petal falling on the ground and getting your attention)
can lead to your choosing one person over another as a mate for life,
you should focus on these very small details. Neither the filmmaker nor
the critics realized that they were dealing with the backward process; there
are trillions of such small things in the course of a simple day, and examining
all of them lies outside of our reach.
Once Again, Incomplete Information
Take a personal computer. You can use a spreadsheet program to generate
a random sequence, a succession of points we can call a history. How?
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