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enough to believe that God would not penalize us for false belief. Unless,
of course, one is taking the quite restrictive view of a naive God. (Bertrand
Russell was reported to have claimed that God would need to have created
fools for Pascal's argument to work.)
But the idea behind Pascal's wager has fundamental applications outside
of theology. It stands the entire notion of knowledge on its head. It
eliminates the need for us to understand the probabilities of a rare event
(there are fundamental limits to our knowledge of these); rather, we can
focus on the payoff and benefits of an event if it takes place. The probabilities
of very rare events are not computable; the effect of an event on us is
A P P E L L E S T H E P A I N T E R , O R W H A T D O Y O U D O I F Y O U C A N N O T P R E D I C T ? 2 11
considerably easier to ascertain (the rarer the event, the fuzzier the odds).
We can have a clear idea of the consequences of an event, even if we do not
know how likely it is to occur. I don't know the odds of an earthquake,
but I can imagine how San Francisco might be affected by one. This idea
that in order to make a decision you need to focus on the consequences
(which you can know) rather than the probability (which you can't know)
is the central idea of uncertainty. Much of my life is based on it.
You can build an overall theory of decision making on this idea. All
you have to do is mitigate the consequences. As I said, if my portfolio is
exposed to a market crash, the odds of which I can't compute, all I have
to do is buy insurance, or get out and invest the amounts I am not willing
to ever lose in less risky securities.
Effectively, if free markets have been successful, it is precisely because
they allow the trial-and-error process I call "stochastic tinkering" on the
part of competing individual operators who fall for the narrative fallacy—
but are effectively collectively partaking of a grand project. We are
increasingly learning to practice stochastic tinkering without knowing it—
thanks to overconfident entrepreneurs, na?ve investors, greedy investment
bankers, and aggressive venture capitalists brought together by the freemarket
system. The next chapter shows why I am optimistic that the academy
is losing its power and ability to put knowledge in straitjackets and
that more out-of-the-box knowledge will be generated Wiki-style.
In the end we are being driven by history, all the while thinking that we are
doing the driving.
I'll sum up this long section on prediction by stating that we can easily
narrow down the reasons we can't figure out what's going on. There are:
a) epistemic arrogance and our corresponding future blindness; b) the Platonic
notion of categories, or how people are fooled by reductions, particularly
if they have an academic degree in an expert-free discipline; and,
finally c) flawed tools of inference, particularly the Black Swan-free tools
from Mediocristan.
In the next section we will go deeper, much deeper, into these tools
from Mediocristan, into the "plumbing," so to speak. Some readers may
see it as an appendix; others may consider it the heart of the book.
OfBC?WMISTAN
THOSE ?RAY
SWANS
t's time to deal in some depth with four final items that bear on our
Black Swan.
Primo, I have said earlier that the world is moving deeper into Extremistan,
that it is less and less governed by Mediocristan—in fact, this
idea is more subtle than that. I will show how and present the various
ideas we have about the formation of inequality. Secondo, I have been describing
the Gaussian bell curve as a contagious and severe delusion, and
it is time to get into that point in some depth. Terso, I will present what I
call Mandelbrotian, or fractal, randomness. Remember that for an event
to be a Black Swan, it does not just have to be rare, or just wild; it has to
be unexpected, has to lie outside our tunnel of possibilities. You must be a
sucker for it. As it happens, many rare events can yield their structure to
us: it is not easy to compute their probability, but it is easy to get a general
idea about the possibility of their occurrence. We can turn these Black
Swans into Gray Swans, so to speak, reducing their surprise effect. A person
aware of the possibility of such events can come to belong to the nonsucker
variety.
Finally, I will present the ideas of those philosophers who focus on
phony uncertainty. I organized this book in such a way that the more technical
(though nonessential) sections are here; these can be skipped without
any loss to the thoughtful reader, particularly Chapters 15, 17, and the second
half of Chapter 16.1 will alert the reader with footnotes. The reader less
interested in the mechanics of deviations can then directly proceed to Part 4.
Chapter Fourteen
FROM MEDIOCRISTAN TO
EXTREMISTAN, AND BACK
/ prefer Horowitz—How to fall from favor—The long tail—Get ready for some
surprises—It's not just money
Let us see how an increasingly man-made planet can evolve away from
mild into wild randomness. First, I describe how we get to Extremistan.
Then, I will take a look at its evolution.
The World Is Unfair
Is the world that unfair?
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