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Not one
of these books deals with Extremistan. Not one. The few books that do
are not by statisticians but by statistical physicists. We are teaching people
methods from Mediocristan and turning them loose in Extremistan. It is
like developing a medicine for plants and applying it to humans. It is no
wonder that we run the biggest risk of all: we handle matters that belong
* This is a simple illustration of the general point of this book in finance and economics.
If you do not believe in applying the bell curve to social variables, and if,
like many professionals, you are already convinced that "modern" financial theory
is dangerous junk science, you can safely skip this chapter.
L O C K E ' S MADMEN, OR B E L L CURVES IN T H E WRONG PLACES 2 7 5
to Extremistan, but treated as if they belonged to Mediocristan, as an
"approximation."
Several hundred thousand students in business schools and social science
departments from Singapore to Urbana-Champaign, as well as people
in the business world, continue to study "scientific" methods, all
grounded in the Gaussian, all embedded in the ludic fallacy.
This chapter examines disasters stemming from the application of
phony mathematics to social science. The real topic might be the dangers
to our society brought about by the Swedish academy that awards the
Nobel Prize.
Only Fifty Years
Let us return to the story of my business life. Look at the graph in Figure
14. In the last fifty years, the ten most extreme days in the financial
markets represent half the returns. Ten days in fifty years. Meanwhile, we
are mired in chitchat.
Clearly, anyone who wants more than the high number of six sigma as
proof that markets are from Extremistan needs to have his head examined.
Dozens of papers show the inadequacy of the Gaussian family of distributions
and the scalable nature of markets. Recall that, over the years,
I myself have run statistics backward and forward on 20 million pieces of
data that made me despise anyone talking about markets in Gaussian
terms. But people have a hard time making the leap to the consequences of
this knowledge.
The strangest thing is that people in business usually agree with me
when they listen to me talk or hear me make my case. But when they go to
the office the next day they revert to the Gaussian tools so entrenched in
their habits. Their minds are domain-dependent, so they can exercise critical
thinking at a conference while not doing so in the office. Furthermore,
the Gaussian tools give them numbers, which seem to be "better than
nothing." The resulting measure of future uncertainty satisfies our ingrained
desire to simplify even if that means squeezing into one single
number matters that are too rich to be described that way.
The Clerks' Betrayal
I ended Chapter 1 with the stock market crash of 1987, which allowed me
to aggressively pursue my Black Swan idea. Right after the crash, when I
2 7 6 THOSE GRAY SWANS OF EXTREMISTAN
FIGURE 14
3000 I
2500 I
2000 I
o
Y E A R S
By removing the ten biggest one-day moves from the U.S. stock market over the
past fifty years, we see a huge difference in returns—and yet conventional finance
sees these one-day jumps as mere anomalies. (This is only one of many such tests.
While it is quite convincing on a casual read, there are many more-convincing ones
from a mathematical standpoint, such as-the incidence of 10 sigma events.)
stated that those using sigmas (i.e., standard deviations) as a measure of
the degree of risk and randomness were charlatans, everyone agreed with
me. If the world of finance were Gaussian, an episode such as the crash
(more than twenty standard deviations) would take place every several billion
lifetimes of the universe (look at the height example in Chapter 15).
According to the circumstances of 1987, people accepted that rare events
take place and are the main source of uncertainty. They were just unwilling
to give up on the Gaussian as a central measurement tool—"Hey, we
have nothing else." People want a number to anchor on. Yet the two
methods are logically incompatible.
Unbeknownst to me, 1987 was not the first time the idea of the Gaussian
was shown to be lunacy. Mandelbrot proposed the scalable to the economics
establishment around 1960, and showed them how the Gaussian
curve did not fit prices then. But after they got over their excitement, they
realized that they would have to relearn their trade. One of the influential
economists of the day, the late Paul Cootner, wrote, "Mandelbrot, like
Prime Minister Churchill before him, promised us not Utopia, but blood,
sweat, toil, and tears. If he is right, almost all our statistical tools are obsolete
[or] meaningless." I propose two corrections to Cootner's statement.
First, I would replace almost all with all. Second, I disagree with the
blood and sweat business. I find Mandelbrot's randomness considerably
L O C K E ' S MADMEN, OR B E L L CURVES IN T H E WRONG PLACES 2 7 7
easier to understand than the conventional statistics. If you come fresh to
the business, do not rely on the old theoretical tools, and do not have a
high expectation of certainty.
Anyone Can Become President
And now a brief history of the "Nobel" Prize in economics, which was established
by the Bank of Sweden in honor of Alfred Nobel, who may be,
according to his family who wants the prize abolished, now rolling in his
grave with disgust. An activist family member calls the prize a public relations
coup by economists aiming to put their field on a higher footing than
it deserves. True, the prize has gone to some valuable thinkers, such as the
empirical psychologist Daniel Kahneman and the thinking economist
Friedrich Hayek. But the committee has gotten into the habit of handing
out Nobel Prizes to those who "bring rigor" to the process with pseudoscience
and phony mathematics. After the stock market crash, they rewarded
two theoreticians, Harry Markowitz and William Sharpe, who
built beautifully Platonic models on a Gaussian base, contributing to what
is called Modern Portfolio Theory. Simply, if you remove their Gaussian
assumptions and treat prices as scalable, you are left with hot air. The
Nobel Committee could have tested the Sharpe and Markowitz models—
they work like quack remedies sold on the Internet—but nobody in Stockholm
seems to have thought of it. Nor did the committee come to us
practitioners to ask us our opinions; instead it relied on an academic vetting
process that, in some disciplines, can be corrupt all the way to the
marrow. After that award I made a prediction: "In a world in which these
two get the Nobel, anything can happen. Anyone can become president."
So the Bank of Sweden and the Nobel Academy are largely responsible
for giving credence to the use of the Gaussian Modern Portfolio Theory as
institutions have found it a great cover-your-behind approach. Software
vendors have sold "Nobel crowned" methods for millions of dollars. How
could you go wrong using it?
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